 RMS Titanic departing Southampton on 10 April 1912 |
|
| Career |  |
|---|---|
| Name: | RMS Titanic[1] |
| Owner: | White Star Line[1] |
| Port of registry: |  [2] Liverpool |
| Route: | Southampton to New York City |
| Ordered: | 17 September 1908[3] |
| Builder: | Harland and Wolff, Belfast[1] |
| Yard number: | 401[4][3] |
| Laid down: | 31 March 1909[5] |
| Launched: | 31 May 1911[6] |
| Christened: | Not christened |
| Completed: | 31 March 1912 |
| Maiden voyage: | 10 April 1912[7] |
| Identification: | Radio Callsign "MGY" UK Official Number: 131428[8] |
| Fate: | Foundered on 15 April 1912 after colliding with an iceberg 375 miles southeast of Halifax, Nova Scotia[9][10] |
| General characteristics | |
| Class and type: | Olympic-class ocean liner[3] |
| Tonnage: | 46,328 gross register tons (GRT)[1] |
| Displacement: | 52,310 tons[1] |
| Length: | 882 ft 9 in (269.1 m)[11] |
| Beam: | 92 ft 0 in (28.0 m)[11] |
| Height: | 175 ft (53.3 m) (Keel to top of funnels) |
| Draught: | 34 ft 7 in (10.5 m)[1] |
| Depth: | 64 ft 6 in (19.7 m)[11] |
| Decks: | 9 (A through G) |
| Installed power: | Boilers: 24 double-ended and 5 single-ended Engines: Two reciprocating steam engines for the wing propellers[12] and a low-pressure turbine for the center propeller[12] Effect: 46,000 HP (design)[13] |
| Propulsion: | Two triple-blade wing propellers and one quadruple-blade centre propeller |
| Speed: |
Cruising: 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph)[note 1][14] Max: 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph)[15] |
| Capacity: | Passengers: 2,453, crew: 885[16] |
| Notes: | Lifeboats: 20[17] with a capacity of 1,178 people[18] |
The RMS Titanic was a passenger liner that struck an iceberg in the north Atlantic Ocean on her maiden voyage from Southampton, England, to New York City, United States, and sank on 15 April 1912, resulting in the deaths of 1,517 people in one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history. The Titanic was designed by experienced engineers, using some of the most advanced technologies and extensive safety features of the time. That she sank on her maiden voyage and that many lives were lost resulted in a media protest which led to changes in maritime law.
The largest passenger steamship in the world at the time, the Olympic-class Royal Mail Ship RMS Titanic was owned by the White Star Line and constructed at the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, Ireland, UK. After setting sail for New York City on 10 April 1912 with 2,223 people on board, she hit an iceberg four days into the crossing, at 11:40 pm on 14 April 1912, and sank at 2:20 am on the morning of 15 April. The ship did not sail into the iceberg head on but rather suffered a glancing blow in a manoeuvre trying to avoid it. Further the iceberg did not open her plates like a can opener but rather tore them apart in the riveted joints. The Titanic was designed to survive a head on collision that would flood the first four of her water tight compartments or a collision from another ship that would ram her in the middle and flood maximum two compartments; however, this long opening in the hull was not foreseen and the crew soon realised that the ship was going to sink.
The high casualty rate resulting from the sinking was due in part to the fact that, although complying with the regulations of the time, the ship carried lifeboats for only 1,178 people. A disproportionate number of men died due to the "women and children first" protocol that was enforced by the ship's crew. This procedure meant that many boats were only half filled. Since the sea was calm, it would have been safe to fill all boats to capacity and thereby rescue an additional 500 persons. Further, only a few were picked up from the water after the sinking out of fear of the boats being overfilled or capsizing. Another factor that crucially contributed to the high death rate was the failure of the nearby ship the Californian to come to the rescue. The Titanic stayed afloat for more than 2½ hours, which meant that the Californian would have had enough time to reach her before she sank. In the end it was the Carpathia which came to the rescue and picked up the survivor from the lifeboats but not until the Titanic had been sunk for almost 2 hours.
In the aftermath of the sinking, the owner of the Titanic, J. Bruce Ismay, was criticised for having left the ship while there were still passengers onboard who could have been saved and the same was the case for the captain of the Californian for failing to assist the sinking ship. In navigation, the disaster led to new safety regulations especially regarding the number of lifeboats which were increased to provide room for everyone onboard. Further, wireless telegraphs were to be manned at all hours to make sure a ship could be called to assistance. Since the sinking, the memory of her has been kept alive by books and films especially the 1997 film Titanic, one of the best selling ever, which was inspired by the discovery of the wreck in 1985. Though the wreck itself has never been recovered, nearly 6,000 artefacts have been lifted from it and are on exhibition today. Memorials of the victims have also been created, mostly in towns associated with the ship and her people.
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Titanic was built at the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, Ireland and designed to compete with the rival Cunard Line's Lusitania and Mauretania. Titanic, along with her Olympic-class sisters, Olympic and the soon-to-be-built Britannic (originally named Gigantic), were intended to be the largest, most luxurious ships ever to sail. The designers were Lord Pirrie,[19] a director of both Harland and Wolff and White Star, naval architect Thomas Andrews, Harland and Wolff's construction manager and head of their design department,[20] and the Right Honourable Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard's chief draughtsman and general manager.[note 2][21] Carlisle's responsibilities included the decorations, equipment and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design. Carlisle would leave the project in 1910, before the ships were launched, when he became a shareholder in Welin Davit & Engineering Company Ltd, the firm making the davits.[22]
Construction of RMS Titanic, funded by the American J.P. Morgan and his International Mercantile Marine Co., began on 31 March 1909.[23] Titanic's hull was launched at 12:13 on 31 May 1911,[24] and her outfitting was completed by 31 March the following year.
Her length overall was 882 feet 9 inches (269.1 m), the moulded breadth (max. width) 92 feet (28 m),[23] the tonnage 46,328 GRT, and the height, from the water line to the boat deck, 59 feet (18 m). She was equipped with two reciprocating four-cylinder, triple-expansion steam engines and one low-pressure Parsons turbine, each driving a propeller. There were 29 boilers fired by 159 coal burning furnaces that made possible a top speed of 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph). Only three of the four 62 foot (19 m) funnels were functional: the fourth, which only provided ventilation, was added to make the ship look more impressive. The ship was licensed to carry 3547 persons, passengers and crew.[25]
Of the two steam-powered steering engines installed, one was kept in use and one kept in reserve; the engines could be slid away and disengaged when not required. A quarter-circle rack-and-pinion drive was connected to the short tiller through stiff springs, to isolate the engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction. As a last resort, the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans.[26]
Titanic was fitted with five ballast and bilge pumps used for trimming the vessel, and three other bilge pumps with a capacity of 150 tons per hour each.[27] Two 10-inch (250 mm) main ballast pipes ran the length of the ship and valves controlling the distribution of water were operated from the bulkhead deck above.[28] The total discharge capacity from all eight pumps operating together was 1,700 tons or 425,000 imperial gallons (1,930 m3) per hour.[27][note 3]
The Titanic's design and construction featured luxury and opulence. There was a telephone system, a lending library and a large barber shop on the ship.[30] The first-class section had a swimming pool, a gymnasium, squash court, Turkish bath, electric bath and a Verandah Cafe. First-class common rooms were adorned with ornate wood panelling, expensive furniture and other decorations while the third class general room had pine panelling and sturdy teak furniture.[31] The Café Parisien offered cuisine for the first-class passengers, with a sunlit veranda fitted with trellis decorations.[32]
The ship incorporated technologically advanced features for the period, including three electric lifts in first class and one in second class. She also had an extensive electrical system powered by steam-driven generators, ship-wide wiring for electric lights and two Marconi radios. One 5,000-watt set was manned by two Marconi Company operators working in shifts sending and receiving passenger messages.[33] First-class passengers paid a hefty fee for such amenities; the most expensive one-way trans-Atlantic passage was £870[34] (equivalent to £63,837 as of 2012),[35] or $1,363 ($30,917 as of 2012).[36]
Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats of 3 varieties: 1–2: emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each; 3–16: wooden with a capacity of 65 people each and A–D: Englehardt "collapsible" with a capacity of 47 people each.[37][note 4] All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and, except for A and B, connected to davits by ropes. They had been placed on the ship by the giant gantry crane at Belfast. Those on the starboard side were odd-numbered 1–15 from bow to stern, while those on the port side were even-numbered 2–16 from bow to stern. Boats 1 and 2, the "emergency cutters", were kept swung out, hanging from the davits, ready for immediate use, while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck immediately in-board of boats 1 and 2 respectively. Collapsible lifeboats A and B were stored on the roof of the officers' quarters, on either side of number 1 funnel. There were no davits mounted on the officers' quarters to lower them and they weighed a considerable amount empty. During the sinking, lowering collapsibles A and B proved difficult as it was first necessary to slide the boats on timbers and/or oars down to the boat deck. During this procedure, collapsible B capsized and subsequently floated off the ship upside down.[38]
16 sets of davits each able to handle 4 lifeboats were installed giving the Titanic the ability to carry 64[39] wooden lifeboats—enough for 4,000 people, compared with her total capacity of about 3,600[40] passengers and crew. The White Star Line, while agreeing to the new davits, decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats (the minimum required by the Board of Trade, based on Titanic's projected tonnage and passenger manifests from Olympic's 1911 voyages which were usually no more than 1100 people per passage[41]) and four collapsibles (hard bottom and canvas sides on a frame-lifeboats) would be carried, which could accommodate only 1,178 people (one-third of Titanic's total capacity). At the time, the Board of Trade's regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tons to carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 5,500 cubic feet (160 m3), plus enough capacity in rafts and floats for 75% (50% for vessels with watertight bulkheads) of that in the lifeboats. In principle, the White Star line could even have made use of the exception for vessels with watertight bulkheads, which would have reduced the legal requirements to a capacity of 756 persons only.[23] Therefore, the White Star Line actually provided much more lifeboat accommodation than was legally required.[42][note 5]
The Titanic had two sister ships: the older RMS Olympic and the younger RMS Britannic, though the latter was not in service at the time Titanic sank. Together they constituted the Olympic class ships. Although the Titanic enclosed more space and therefore had a larger gross register tonnage, the hull was the same length as Olympic's. Three of the most noticeable differences from Olympic were that half of Titanic's forward promenade A-Deck (below the boat deck) was enclosed against outside weather, her B-Deck configuration was different, and Olympic also did not have the equivalent of Titanic's Café Parisien. Some of the flaws found on Olympic, such as the creaking of the aft expansion joint, were corrected on Titanic. The skid lights that provided night time illumination on A-deck were round, while on Olympic they were oval, and Titanic's wheelhouse was made narrower and longer than Olympic's.[46] These, and other modifications, made Titanic 1,004 gross register tons larger than Olympic and thus the largest ship in the world during her maiden voyage in April 1912.
As a result of Titanic's sinking, Olympic's 1913 refit included raising the height of her watertight compartment bulkheads, the addition of an outer skin to her hull, and a full complement of lifeboats. With the addition of both the Café Parisien and additional parlour suites, Olympic's overall gross tonnage rose to 46,359 tons—31 tons more than Titanic. After the sinking of the Britannic in 1916, the Olympic would hold the distinction of being the largest British-built vessel afloat until the RMS Queen Mary entered service in 1936.[47]
The Titanic sank on her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York on the night of 14/15 April 1912 in the north Atlantic Ocean. Four days into the crossing, at 23:40 (11:40 pm) she hit an iceberg, and sank 2 hours and 40 minutes later. The disaster caused the deaths of 1,517 people in one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history. Titanic had received several warnings of sea ice during 14 April but was travelling at nearly her maximum speed when she collided with the iceberg. The ship suffered a glancing blow that buckled her starboard (right) side and opened five of her sixteen compartments to the sea. Titanic had been designed to stay afloat with four of the front compartments flooded but not five and it started to sink. The crew used rocket flares and wireless messages to attract help as the passengers were put into lifeboats which had only room for half the passengers. Later the survivors in the lifeboats were rescued by the RMS Carpathia at 09:15 on 15 April and sailed to New York. To those who fell or jumped into the water at the sinking, however, help came too late; except from a few who were picked up by lifeboats, they all drowned.
Titanic's sea trials began at 6 am on Monday, 2 April, shortly after she was fitted out at Harland & Wolff shipyard, and just eight days before she was due to leave Southampton on her maiden voyage.[48] Aboard were 78 stokers, greasers and firemen, and 41 members of crew. No domestic staff appears to have been aboard. Representatives of various companies travelled on Titanic's sea trials, including Harold A. Sanderson of I.M.M and Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff. Bruce Ismay and Lord Pirrie were too ill to attend. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride served as radio operators, and performed fine-tuning of the Marconi equipment. Mr Francis Carruthers, a surveyor from the Board of Trade, was also present to see that everything worked, and that the ship was fit to carry passengers. After the trial, he signed an 'Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew', valid for twelve months, which deemed the ship sea-worthy.[49] After six hours of sea trials, Titanic left Belfast at noon for the 550-mile journey to Southampton, under the command of Captain Herbert Haddock.[50][note 6]
The vessel began her maiden voyage from Southampton, bound for New York City on 10 April 1912, with Captain Edward J. Smith in command.[7] As Titanic left her berth, her wake caused the liner SS New York, which was docked nearby, to break away from her moorings, whereupon she was drawn dangerously close (about four feet) to Titanic before a tugboat towed New York away.[51] The incident delayed departure for about half an hour.[52] After crossing the English Channel, Titanic stopped at Cherbourg, France, to board additional passengers and stopped again the next day at Queenstown (known today as Cobh), Ireland.[7] As harbour facilities at Queenstown were inadequate for a ship of her size, Titanic had to anchor off-shore, with small boats, known as tenders, ferrying the embarking and disembarking passengers to and from the ship. When she finally departed Queenstown for New York, there were a total of 2,201 people aboard.[53][note 7]
On the maiden voyage of Titanic some of the most prominent people of the day were travelling in first class. Among them were millionaire John Jacob Astor IV and his wife Madeleine Force Astor, industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim, Macy's owner Isidor Straus and his wife Ida, Denver millionairess Margaret "Molly" Brown (known afterward as the "Unsinkable Molly Brown" due to her efforts in helping other passengers while the ship sank), Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon and his wife, couturière Lucy (Lady Duff-Gordon), George Dunton Widener, his wife Eleanor, and son Harry, cricketer and businessman John Borland Thayer with his wife Marian and their seventeen-year-old son Jack, journalist William Thomas Stead, the Countess of Rothes, United States presidential aide Archibald Butt, author and socialite Helen Churchill Candee, author Jacques Futrelle and his wife May and their friends, Broadway producers Henry and Rene Harris and silent film actress Dorothy Gibson among others.[56] Banker J. P. Morgan was scheduled to travel on the maiden voyage, but cancelled at the last minute.[57] Travelling in first class aboard the ship were White Star Line's managing director J. Bruce Ismay and the ship's builder Thomas Andrews, who was on board to observe any problems and assess the general performance of the new ship.[56]
On the night of Sunday, 14 April 1912, the moon was not visible in the clear sky (being two days before new moon), the temperature had dropped to near freezing, and the ocean was flat calm. Captain Smith, in response to iceberg warnings received via wireless over the preceding few days, had drawn up a new course which took the ship slightly further southward. That Sunday at 1:45 PM,[note 8] a message from the steamer Amerika warned that large icebergs lay in Titanic's path, but because wireless radio operators Jack Phillips and Harold Bride were employed by Marconi,[58] and paid primarily to relay messages to and from the passengers,[59] they were not focused on relaying "non-essential" ice messages to the bridge.[60] Later that evening, another report of numerous large icebergs, this time from Mesaba, also failed to reach the bridge.
At 11:40 PM, while sailing about 400 miles (640 km) south of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, lookouts Frederick Fleet and Reginald Lee spotted a large iceberg directly ahead of the ship. Sounding the ship's bell three times, Fleet telephoned Sixth Officer James Moody on the bridge exclaiming, "Iceberg, right ahead!". First Officer Murdoch, hearing Moody repeat the message, gave the helmsman, Robert Hichens, the order "hard-a-starboard", using the traditional tiller order for an abrupt turn to port (left).[note 9] Moody, stationed behind the helmsman, confirmed to Murdoch that his order had been carried out correctly.[62][63][64] Murdoch adjusted the engines (ordering through the telegraph for either "full reverse" or "stop" of the engines; survivor testimony on this conflicts).[65][66]
The ship made her fatal collision at an estimated 37 seconds[67] after Fleet sighted the berg. The iceberg scraped the ship's starboard (right) side, buckling the hull in several places and popping out rivets below the waterline over a length of 299 feet (90 m). This opened the first six compartments (the forward peak tank, the three forward holds and Boiler Rooms Nos. 5 & 6) to the sea; the ship was only designed to remain afloat with just the first four compartments flooded. The entire impact had lasted approximately 10 seconds.[23][68] Captain Smith, alerted by the jolt of the impact, arrived on the bridge and ordered a full stop. The watertight doors had been immediately shut by Murdoch, and within ten minutes of the collision the five forward compartments were flooded to a depth of 14 feet (4.3 m). The fifth and sixth water-filled compartments weighed down the ship's bow enough to allow more water to flood the vessel, accelerated by secondary flooding as regular openings in the ship's hull became submerged.[23] Additionally, about 130 minutes after the collision, water started pouring from the sixth into the seventh compartment over the top of the bulkhead separating them.[23] Following an inspection by the senior officers, the ship's carpenter J. Hutchinson and Titanic's shipbuilder Thomas Andrews, which included a survey of the half-flooded two-deck postal room, it was apparent that Titanic would sink. The lifeboats were ordered to be readied and a distress call was sent out.[69] Andrews estimated the ship would go down within an hour and a half.[69]
Wireless operators Jack Phillips and Harold Bride began sending the international distress signal "CQD", which was received by several ships, including Mount Temple, Frankfurt, Virginian and Titanic's sister ship, Olympic. In addition to the traditional CQD, Phillips also used the new "SOS" distress call on the advice of Bride, as SOS had successfully been used to summon help for the White Star Liner Republic which sank in 1909 after colliding with the liner SS Florida. Despite assurances that they were on their way, none of the vessels were close enough to reach the liner before she sank.[70] The closest ship to respond was Cunard Line's Carpathia 58 miles (93 km) away, which would arrive in an estimated four hours—too late to rescue all of Titanic's passengers. The Carpathia's wireless operator Harold Cottam awakened the ship's Captain Arthur Rostron, who immediately ordered the ship to race towards the Titanic's reported position.[71] The only land-based location that received the distress call from Titanic was a wireless station at Cape Race, Newfoundland.[70][72] Some of the responding liners did not fully comprehend the seriousness of the collision. As late as 1:30 am, a full 90 minutes after the first CQD was sent out, Olympic radioed her sister asking if they were steaming to the south to meet her, while the Frankfurt continually asked a frustrated Phillips for more details.
From the bridge, the lights of a nearby ship could be seen off the port side. The identity of the ship sighted by the Titanic remains a mystery but there have been theories suggesting that it was probably either SS Californian or a Norwegian sealer called the Samson.[73] As it was not responding to wireless calls, Fourth Officer Boxhall and Quartermaster Rowe attempted signalling the ship with a Morse lamp and later with distress rockets, but the ship never appeared to respond.[74] Californian, which was nearby and stopped for the night because of ice, also saw lights in the distance, but its wireless was turned off for the night. Just before the Californian's wireless operator had gone off-duty at around 11:00 PM, he attempted to warn Titanic that there was ice ahead, but he was cut off by an annoyed Jack Phillips. Occupied with sending backlogged passenger messages, Phillips fired back an angry response, "Shut up, shut up, I am busy; I am working [the Newfoundland wireless station] Cape Race".[75] When Californian's officers first saw the ship, they tried signalling her with their Morse lamp, but never received a response. Later, they noticed Titanic's distress rockets in the sky above the ship's lights, and informed Captain Stanley Lord. Even though there was much discussion about the mysterious ship, which to the officers on duty appeared to be moving away, the master of Californian did not wake the ship's wireless operator until morning.[74]
The first lifeboat launched was Lifeboat 7 on the starboard side with 28 people on board out of a capacity of 65. It was lowered at around 12:45 AM as believed by the British Inquiry.[76] Lifeboat 6 and Lifeboat 5 were launched ten minutes later. Lifeboat 1 was the fifth lifeboat to be launched with 12 people. Lifeboat 11 was overloaded with 70 people. Collapsible D was the last lifeboat to be launched.[76] Titanic carried 20 lifeboats with a total capacity of 1,178 people. While not enough to hold all of the passengers and crew, Titanic carried more boats than was required by the British Board of Trade Regulations. At the time, the number of lifeboats required was determined by a ship's gross register tonnage, rather than her passenger capacity.
Titanic had ample stability and sank with only a few degrees list, the design being such that there was very little risk of unequal flooding and possible capsize.[23] Furthermore the electric power plant was operated by the ship's engineers until the end. Hence Titanic showed no outward signs of being in imminent danger, and passengers were reluctant to leave the apparent safety of the ship to board small lifeboats. Moreover, large numbers of Third Class passengers were unable to reach the lifeboat deck through unfamiliar parts of the ship and past barriers, although some stewards such as John Edward Hart[77] and William Denton Cox successfully led groups from Third Class to the lifeboats.[78] As a result, most of the boats were launched partially empty; boat 1, meant to hold 40 people, left Titanic with only 12 people on board. With "Women and children first" the imperative for loading lifeboats, Second Officer Lightoller, who was loading boats on the port side, allowed men to board only if oarsmen were needed, even if there was room. First Officer Murdoch, who was loading boats on the starboard side, let men on board if women were absent. As the ship's list increased people started to become nervous, and some lifeboats began leaving fully loaded. By 2:05 am, the entire bow was under water, and all the lifeboats, except for two, had been launched.
Around 2:10 AM, the stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, and by 2:17 AM, the waterline had reached the boat deck. The last two lifeboats floated off the deck, collapsible B upside down, collapsible A half-filled with water after the supports for its canvas sides were broken in the fall from the roof of the officers' quarters. Shortly afterwards, the forward funnel collapsed, crushing part of the bridge and people in the water. On deck, people were scrambling towards the stern or jumping overboard in hopes of reaching a lifeboat. The ship's stern slowly rose into the air, and everything unsecured crashed towards the water. While the stern rose, the electrical system finally gave way causing the lights to go out. Shortly afterward, the stress on the hull caused Titanic to break apart between the last two funnels, and the bow section went completely under. The stern section righted itself slightly and then rose vertically. After a few moments, at 2:20 AM, it also sank.[79]
Only two of the 18 launched lifeboats rescued people after the ship sank. Lifeboat 4 was close by and picked up five people, two of whom later died. Close to an hour later, lifeboat 14 went back and rescued four people, one of whom died afterward. Other people managed to climb onto the lifeboats that floated off the deck. There were some arguments in some of the other lifeboats about going back, but many survivors were afraid of being swamped by people trying to climb into the lifeboat or being pulled down by the suction from the sinking Titanic, though it turned out that there had been very little suction.[80]
As the ship fell into the depths, the two sections behaved very differently. The streamlined bow planed off approximately 2,000 ft (610 m) below the surface and slowed somewhat, landing relatively gently. The stern plunged violently to the ocean floor, the hull being torn apart along the way from massive implosions caused by compression of water tight compartments inside the ship. The stern smashed into the bottom at considerable speed, grinding the hull deep into the silt.[79]
After steaming at 17.5 knots (32.4 km/h) for just less than four hours, RMS Carpathia arrived in the area and at 4:10 am began rescuing survivors. By 8:30 am she picked up the last lifeboat with survivors and left the area at 8:50AM [81] bound for New York.[80]
On 18 April, Carpathia docked at Pier 54 at Little West 12th Street in New York with the survivors.[82] She arrived at night and was greeted by thousands of people. Immediate relief in the form of clothing and transportation to shelters was provided by the Women's Relief Committee, the Travelers Aid Society of New York, and the Council of Jewish Women, among other organizations.[83][84] Titanic had been heading for 20th Street. Carpathia dropped off the empty Titanic lifeboats at Pier 59, as property of the White Star Line, before unloading the survivors at Pier 54. Both piers were part of the Chelsea Piers built to handle luxury liners of the day. As news of the disaster spread, many people were shocked that Titanic could sink with such great loss of life despite all of her technological advances.[85]
On the morning of 15 April 1912, the White Star Line headquarters in Liverpool were besieged by press and relatives of passengers, officials feared leaving the building and therefore updated the crowds from the fourth floor balconies.[86] Newspapers were filled with stories and descriptions of the disaster and were eager to get the latest information. Many charities were set up to help the victims and their families, many of whom lost their sole breadwinner, or, in the case of third class survivors, lost everything they owned.[87] On 29 April opera stars Enrico Caruso and Mary Garden and members of the Metropolitan Opera raised $12,000 in benefits for victims of the disaster by giving special concerts in which versions of "Autumn" and "Nearer My God To Thee" were part of the program.[88] The people of Southampton suffered the greatest losses from the sinking. According to the Hampshire Chronicle on 20 April 1912, almost 1,000 local families were directly affected. Almost every street in the Chapel district of the town lost more than one resident and over 500 households lost a member.[85]
Even before the survivors arrived in New York, investigations were being planned to discover what had happened, and what could be done to prevent a recurrence. The United States Senate initiated an inquiry into the disaster on 19 April, a day after Carpathia arrived in New York.[89]
The chairman of the inquiry, Senator William Alden Smith, wanted to gather accounts from passengers and crew while the events were still fresh in their minds. Smith also needed to subpoena all surviving British passengers and crew while they were still on American soil, which prevented them from returning to the UK before the American inquiry was completed on 25 May.[89] The British press condemned Smith as an opportunist, insensitively forcing an inquiry as a means of gaining political prestige and seizing "his moment to stand on the world stage". Smith, however, already had a reputation as a campaigner for safety on U.S. railroads, and wanted to investigate any possible malpractices by railroad tycoon J. P. Morgan, Titanic's ultimate owner.[90]
Lord Mersey was appointed to head the British Board of Trade's inquiry into the disaster, which took place between 2 May and 3 July. Each inquiry took testimony from both passengers and crew of Titanic, crew members of Leyland Line's Californian, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia and other experts.[91]
The investigations found that many safety rules were simply out of date, and new laws were recommended. Numerous safety improvements for ocean-going vessels were implemented, including improved hull and bulkhead design, access throughout the ship for egress of passengers, lifeboat requirements, improved life-vest design, the holding of safety drills, better passenger notification, radio communications laws, etc. The investigators also learned that Titanic had sufficient lifeboat space for all first-class passengers, but not for the lower classes. In fact, most third class passengers had no idea where the lifeboats were, much less any way of getting to the upper decks where the lifeboats were stowed.[43][note 10]
Both inquiries into the disaster examined the SS Californian's assistance to Titanic. Testimony before the British inquiry revealed that at 10:10 pm, Californian observed the lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Stanley Lord and Third Officer C.V. Groves (who had relieved Lord of duty at 11:10 pm) that this was a passenger liner. Californian had warned the ship by radio of the pack ice which was the reason Californian had stopped for the night, but was violently rebuked by Titanic's senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips. At 11:50 pm, the officer had watched that ship's lights flash out, as if it had shut down or turned sharply, and that the port light was now visible. Morse light signals to the ship, upon Lord's order, occurred five times between 11:30 pm and 1:00 am, but were not acknowledged. (In testimony, it was stated that Californian's Morse lamp had a range of about four miles (6 km), so could not have been seen from Titanic.)[74]
Captain Lord had retired at 11:30 pm; however, Second Officer Herbert Stone, now on duty, notified Lord at 1:15 am that the ship had fired a rocket, followed by four more. Lord wanted to know if they were company signals, that is, coloured flares used for identification. Stone said that he did not know and that the rockets were all white. Captain Lord instructed the crew to continue to signal the other vessel with the Morse lamp, and went back to sleep. Three more rockets were observed at 1:50 am and Stone noted that the ship looked strange in the water, as if she were listing. At 2:15 am, Lord was notified that the ship could no longer be seen. Lord asked again if the lights had had any colours in them, and he was informed that they were all white.[94]
Californian eventually responded. At 5:30 am, Chief Officer George Stewart awakened wireless operator Cyril Furmstone Evans, informed him that rockets had been seen during the night, and asked that he try to communicate with any ships. Frankfurt notified the operator of Titanic's loss, Captain Lord was notified, and the ship set out for assistance.[94]
The inquiries found that Californian was much closer to Titanic than the 19.5 miles (31.4 km) that Captain Lord had believed, and that Lord should have awakened the wireless operator after the rockets were first reported to him, and thus could have acted to prevent loss of life.[74][note 11]
Of a total of 2,224 people aboard Titanic only 710, less than a third, survived and 1,514 perished.[96] Men and members of the 2nd and 3rd class were less likely to survive. Of the male passengers in second class, 92 percent perished. Less than a quarter of third-class passengers survived.[97] All but one of the children in first and second class survived, whereas less than half were saved in third class. 97 percent of the women in first class survived, 86 percent of the women survived in second class and less than half survived in third class.[97] Of men on board, 33 percent of the first class were saved, while only 8 percent of the second class and 16 percent of the third class were saved. Overall, only 20 percent of the men survived, compared to nearly 75 percent of the women.[97] Men in first class were four times as likely to survive as men in second class, and twice as likely to survive as those in third.[97]
Four of the eight officers survived. About 21 of the 29 able seamen survived and all seven quartermasters and eight lookouts survived. Three of the 13 leading firemen survived, around 45 other firemen survived and around 20 of the 73 coal trimmers survived. Four of the 33 greasers survived and one of the six mess hall stewards survived. Around 60 of the 322 stewards and 16 of the 18 stewardesses survived. Three of the 68 restaurant staff survived. All five postal clerks, guarantee group, and eight-member orchestra perished.[note 12]
Once the massive loss of life became known, White Star Line chartered the cable ship CS Mackay-Bennett from Halifax, Nova Scotia to retrieve bodies. Three other ships followed in the search: cable ship Minia, lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and sealing vessel Algerine. Each ship left with embalming supplies, undertakers, and clergy. Of the 333 victims that were eventually recovered, 328 were retrieved by the Canadian ships and five more by passing North Atlantic steamships. Most of the bodies were numbered, however, the five passengers buried at sea by Carpathia went unnumbered.[100] In mid-May 1912, RMS Oceanic recovered three bodies over 200 miles (320 km) from the site of the sinking who were among the original occupants of Collapsible A. When Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and six crewmen returned to the wreck site sometime after the sinking in a lifeboat to pick up survivors, they had rescued a female from Collapsible A, but left the dead bodies of three of its occupants.[note 13] After their retrieval from Collapsible A by Oceanic, the bodies were then buried at sea.[101][102]
The first body recovery ship to reach the site of the sinking, the cable ship CS Mackay-Bennett found so many bodies that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted, and health regulations required that only embalmed bodies could be returned to port.[103] Captain Larnder of the Mackay-Bennett and undertakers aboard decided to preserve only the bodies of first class passengers, justifying their decision by the need to visually identify wealthy men to resolve any disputes over large estates. As a result, third class passengers and crew were buried at sea. Larnder himself claimed that as a mariner, he would expect to be buried at sea.[104] Complaints about the burials at sea were made by families and undertakers. Later ships such as Minia found fewer bodies and were able to limit burials at sea to bodies which were too damaged to preserve.[citation needed]
Bodies recovered were preserved for transport to Halifax, the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship connections. The Halifax coroner, John Henry Barnstead, developed a detailed system to identify bodies and safeguard personal possessions. Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up in a curling rink and undertakers were called in from all across Eastern Canada to assist.[104] Some bodies were shipped to be buried in their home towns across North America and Europe. About two-thirds of the bodies were identified. Unidentified victims were buried with simple numbers based on the order in which their bodies were discovered. The majority of recovered victims, 150 bodies, were buried in three Halifax cemeteries, the largest being Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries.[105]
The idea of finding the wreck of Titanic, and even raising the ship from the ocean floor, had been around since shortly after the ship sank.
No attempt of finding the wreck was successful until 1 September 1985, when a joint American-French expedition, led by Jean-Louis Michel (Ifremer) and Dr. Robert Ballard (WHOI), located the wreck using the side-scan sonar from the research vessels Knorr and Le Suroit.[106] The wreck was found at a depth of 2.5 miles (4 km), slightly more than 370 miles (600 km) south-east of Mistaken Point, Newfoundland at 41°43′55″N 49°56′45″W / 41.73194°N 49.94583°WCoordinates: 41°43′55″N 49°56′45″W / 41.73194°N 49.94583°W.
The most notable discovery the team made was that the ship had split apart, the stern section lying 1,970 feet (600 m) from the bow section and facing opposite directions. After the ship sank there were conflicting witness accounts of whether she broke apart or not; it was generally assumed, before the discovery of the wreck, that she did not.[107] Surrounding the wreck was a large debris field with pieces of the ship, furniture, dinnerware and personal items scattered over 2 square miles (5.2 km2).[108] Approximately 5,500 artefacts have been removed from the wreck. Many of these were put on display at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, England, and later as part of a travelling museum exhibit.[109] The Merseyside Maritime Museum in the Titanic's home port of Liverpool also has an extensive collection of artefacts from the wreck located within a permanent exhibition named 'Titanic, Lusitania and the Forgotten Empress'.[110]
Titanic's rediscovery in 1985 launched a debate over ownership of the wreck and the valuable items inside. In 1994 RMS Titanic Inc., a subsidiary of Premier Exhibitions Inc., was awarded ownership and salvaging rights by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia.[111] (See Admiralty law) On March 24, 2009, it was revealed that the fate of 5,900 artefacts retrieved from the wreck would rest with a U.S. District Judge's decision.[112] The ruling was later issued in two decisions on 12 August 2010 and 15 August 2011. As announced in 2009, the judge ruled that RMS Titanic Inc. owned the artefacts and her decision dealt with the status of the wreck as well as establishing a monitoring system to check future activity upon the wreck site.[113] On 12 August 2010, Judge Rebecca Beach Smith granted RMS Titanic, Inc. fair market value for the artefacts but deferred ruling on their ownership and the conditions for their preservation, possible disposition and exhibition until a further decision could be reached.[114] On 15 August 2011, Judge Smith granted title to thousands of artefacts from the Titanic that RMS Titanic Inc., did not already own under a French court decision concerning the first group of salvaged artefacts to RMS Titanic Inc., subject to a detailed list of conditions concerning preservation and disposition of the items.[115] The artefacts can be sold only to a company that would abide by the lengthy list of conditions and restrictions.[115] RMS Titanic Inc. can profit from the artefacts through exhibiting them.[115]
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It is well established that the sinking of Titanic was the result of an iceberg collision, which fatally punctured the ship's five forward most watertight compartments. Less obvious, however, are the reasons for the collision itself (which occurred on a clear night, and after the ship had received numerous ice warnings), the factors underlying the sheer extent of the damage sustained by the ship, and the reasons for the extreme loss of life.[116]
The Titanic had 16 watertigt compartments design to keep the ship afloat if the first 4 or 2 in the middle were flooded. This was what could be expected at a collision head on into an iceberg or a collision from an other ship into the Titanic.[citation needed] However, the long glancing blow to the starboard side of the Titanic causing buckling in the hull plates of the first six compartments was more than the ship's designers had anticipated.[117][118][note 14]
Originally, historians thought the iceberg had cut a gash into Titanic's hull. Since the part of the ship that the iceberg damaged is now buried, scientists used sonar to examine the area and discovered the iceberg had caused the hull to buckle, allowing water to enter Titanic between her steel plates.[116] A detailed analysis of small pieces of the steel plating from Titanic found that it was of a metallurgy that loses its ductility and becomes brittle in cold or icy water, leaving it vulnerable to dent-induced ruptures. The pieces of steel were found to have very high content of phosphorus and sulphur with a lack of manganese compared to modern steels. High content of phosphorus initiates fractures, sulphur forms grains of iron sulphide that facilitate propagation of cracks, and lack of manganese makes the steel less ductile. Titanic's steel was, by this analysis, unsuitable for use at low temperatures.[119] Newer analysis suggest that Titanic's hull steel was by no means a brittle material, even at ice-brine temperatures; earlier tests had been made using a simulated impact, whereas a simulated "slow bend", representing a glancing collision, is more representative of the event.[120] It must also be remembered, as can be seen on the image, that it was not Titanic's plates that cracked but the joints that were torn apart.[citation needed]
The major part of Titanic's hull was held together by steel rivets which were installed by a hydraulic riveting machine. At the bow and the stern this machine could not be used. There, the stresses were expected to be much lower than at the central hull, thus the use of wrought iron rivets (which could be easier installed by hand) was sufficient. Forty-eight out of the millions of rivets holding the Titanic together were recovered from the wreck site, six of which were identified as hull rivets.[121] While the mild steel rivets were of proper quality, the scientists found many of the wrought iron rivets to be riddled with high concentrations of slag. A glassy residue of smelting, slag can make rivets brittle and prone to fracture. Records from the archive of the builder show that the ship's builder ordered No. 3 iron bar, known as "best"—not No. 4, known as "best-best", as material for the wrought iron rivets, although shipbuilders at that time typically used No. 4 iron for such rivets. Rivets of "best best" iron had a tensile strength of approximately 80% of steel's; "best" iron was only around 73%.[122] Despite this, the most extensive and finally fatal damage the Titanic sustained, at boiler rooms No. 5 and 6, was done in an area where steel rivets were used.[121][123]
Although Titanic's rudder met the mandated dimensional requirements for a ship her size, its design might not have reflected contemporary standards. According to research by BBC History: "Her stern, with its high graceful counter and long thin rudder, was an exact copy of an 18th-century sailing ship ...No account was made for advances in scale and little thought was given to how a ship, 852 feet[note 15] in length might turn in an emergency or avoid collision with an iceberg."[125] However, far from being an ill-considered copy of a traditional design, the tall rudder shape was effective at the vessel's designed cruising speed where as short, square rudders are suitable for low-speed manoeuvring. Compared with the modern legal standard — which requires rudder areas to be within a range of 1.5% and 5% of the hull's underwater profile — Titanic's rudder was at the low end of the range at 1.9%, but this configuration has been shown to be effective because it provides good laminar flow of water.[126] During World War One, the Olympic fitted with the same semi-oval rudder as Titanic was able to turn quickly to avoid an enemy submarine, then chase it down and ram and sink it.[127][128]
Possibly contributing to the disaster was Titanic's triple-screw engine configuration, which had reversible reciprocating steam engines driving the two outboard propellers, and a non-reversible steam turbine driving the centre propeller. According to Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall, who came onto the bridge just after the collision, First Officer Murdoch had set the engine room telegraph to reverse the engines to avoid the iceberg,[65] but because the centre turbine could not reverse during the "full speed astern" manoeuvre, it and the centre propeller, positioned directly forward of the ship's rudder, were simply stopped. This greatly reduced the rudder's effectiveness, thus handicapping the turning ability of the ship. Had Murdoch simply turned the ship while maintaining her forward speed, Titanic might have missed the iceberg with feet to spare.[129][note 16]
The conditions at the time of the collision—a flat calm sea, without wind or swell—were unusual for that part of the Atlantic. In addition, it was a moonless night.[130] Under normal sea conditions in the area of the collision, waves would have broken over the base of any icebergs, increasing their visibility to lookouts even on a moonless night.[131] A weather front, moving down from the northwest, lowered the temperature from about 43° Fahrenheit (6° Celsius) to near freezing. The northwest winds behind the front helped to push a giant ice field toward the ship.[132] Visibility might have been better if the lookouts were equipped with binoculars, but they were believed to have been left in Southampton.[133] Further the iceberg that the Titanic hit was newly overturned and thereby wet and appeared dark at night.[134]
The conclusion of the British Inquiry into the sinking was “that the loss of the said ship was due to collision with an iceberg, brought about by the excessive speed at which the ship was being navigated”. At the time of the collision it is thought that Titanic was at her normal cruising speed of about 21 knots (39 km/h), which was less than her top speed of around 23 knots (43 km/h). At the time it was common (but not universal) practice to maintain normal speed in areas where icebergs were expected. It was thought that any iceberg large enough to damage the ship would be seen in sufficient time to be avoided. It is often alleged that J. Bruce Ismay instructed or encouraged Captain Smith to increase speed in order to make an early landfall, and it is a common feature in popular representations of the disaster, such as the 1997 film, Titanic.[135] There is little evidence for this having happened, and it is disputed by many.[136][137]
The most recent law, dating from 1894, required a minimum of 16 lifeboats for ships of over 10,000 tons. This law had been established when the largest ship afloat was the 12,950-ton RMS Lucania. Since then, the size of ships had increased rapidly without a corresponding increase in lifeboat requirements, with a result that the 46,328-ton Titanic was legally required to carry only enough lifeboats for less than half of her capacity. The White Star Line actually exceeded the regulations by including four more collapsible lifeboats, providing a total capacity of 1,178 people (still only around a third of Titanic's total capacity of 3,547).[43]
The delay in launching lifeboats was also a factor. After the collision with the iceberg, one hour was taken to evaluate the damage, recognise what was going to happen, inform first class passengers, and lower the first lifeboat. Afterward, the crew worked efficiently, taking a total of 80 minutes to lower all 16 lifeboats. Since the crew were divided into two teams, one on each side of the ship, an average of 10 minutes of work was necessary for a team to fill a lifeboat with passengers and lower it.[76] The initial reluctance of the passengers to board the lifeboats contributed to the death toll. For example, Lifeboat No. 7 launched first, at 12:45 am and with only 28 people aboard, despite its capacity of 65. Titanic did not initially appear to passengers to be in imminent danger, so they were reluctant to leave the apparent safety of the ship.[76]
In the event of a serious accident in the busy North Atlantic sea lanes, assistance from other vessels was assumed to be close at hand. In this case, the lifeboats would be used to ferry passengers and crew from the stricken vessel to its rescuers. Full provision of lifeboats on the ship was considered unnecessary to support this activity.[138][note 17][note 18] The temperature of the water also played a role. Had it been warm enough for people to stay alive in it for the time it took to get help, some of them could have been picked up of the water alive and the lack of lifeboats would have been less important. However, allmost all of the swimmers died from hypothermia in the 28 °F (−2 °C) water[141] where death could occur in as little as 15 minutes.[142]
The tragedy of the Titanic have inspired books and films most famously in the 1958 film A Night to Remember and in James Cameron's Titanic from 1997.[143] The latter achieved upon its release on December 19, 1997,[144] critical and commercial success. It equalled records with fourteen Academy Award nominations and eleven wins, receiving the prizes for Best Picture and Best Director.[145] With a worldwide gross of over $1.8 billion, it was the first film to reach the billion dollar mark, remaining the highest-grossing film of all time for twelve years, until Cameron's next directorial effort, Avatar, surpassed it in 2010.[146][147] Titanic is also ranked as the sixth best epic film of all time in AFI's 10 Top 10 by the American Film Institute.[148]
Even though Titanic was called "unsinkable" in news stories after the sinking, the fact is neither The White Star Line nor Harland and Wolff declared Titanic unsinkable before its maiden voyage.[149] Regarding the actual sinking, one of the most well-known stories is that of the ship's band, who, according to witnesses, heroically played on while the great steamer was sinking. There has been conflicting information about which songs were played and which one of them was the last heard, the most reported being "Nearer, My God, to Thee". There were several claims of predictions of the disaster, especially during the first years after the tragedy; some of them became part of folklore, like the story involving first class passenger William Thomas Stead, who—according to the legend–had foreseen his own death on Titanic. This had been suggested in two fictional stories Stead had written decades earlier.[150][151] One widespread myth is that the internationally recognised Morse code distress signal "SOS" was first put to use when the Titanic sunk. While it is true that British wireless operators rarely used the "SOS" signal at the time, preferring the older "CQD" code, "SOS" had been used internationally since 1908. The first wireless operator on Titanic, Jack Phillips, sent both "SOS" and "CQD" as call for help.[152] Titanic has also been said, in different meanings, to be cursed.[153] It has been proposed that Titanic sank due to a mummy's curse.[154]
In Southampton, England a memorial to the engineers of Titanic may be found in Andrews Park on Above Bar Street. Near the main memorial, on the corner of Cumberland Place and London Road, is the Titanic Musicians' Memorial to Wallace Hartley and the other musicians who continued playing as the ship went down. A memorial to the ship's five postal workers, which says "Steadfast in Peril" is held by Southampton Heritage Services.[155]
In Cobh (formerly known as Queenstown from 1849 to 1920), County Cork, Ireland a memorial to the Titanic stands in the town centre.[156] Queenstown was the final port of call for the ill-fated liner as she set out across the Atlantic on 11 April 1912.
A significant percentage of Titanic's crew members were from Liverpool, including its six most senior engineers.[157] The Memorial to the Engine Room Heroes of the Titanic stands at Pier Head in Liverpool City Centre close to the former White Star Line headquarters.[157] A memorial plaque commemorating the ship's famed orchestra (which was formed in Liverpool and included Liverpudlian John Frederick Clarke) is located inside Philharmonic Hall on Hope Street.[157]
A memorial to the liner is also located on the grounds of City Hall in Belfast, Northern Ireland.[158] Titanic Belfast, a £77m tourist attraction on the regenerated site of the Harland and Wolff shipyard is to be completed by 15 April 2012, the 100th anniversary of the sinking of Titanic. The building and surrounding park will celebrate Titanic and her links with Belfast, where the ship was built.[159]
Among a number of memorials in the United States are the Titanic Memorial in Washington, D.C. and a memorial to Ida Straus at Straus Park in Manhattan, New York.[160][161]
Much floating wreckage wich was recovered with the bodies in 1912 can be seen today in the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax. Other pieces are part of the travelling exhibition, Titanic: The Artifact Exhibition.[162] A newer attraction, the Branson Titanic Museum opened 2006 in Missouri, USA, is a permanent two-story museum shaped like the RMS Titanic itself. It is built half-scale to the original and holds 400 pre-discovery artifacts in twenty galleries.[citation needed]
At 12:13 pm on 31 May 2011, exactly 100 years after Titanic rolled down her slipway, a single flare was fired over Belfast's docklands in commemoration. All boats in the area around the Harland and Wolff shipyard then sounded their horns and the assembled crowd applauded for exactly 62 seconds, the time it had originally taken for the liner to roll down the slipway in 1911.[163] On 6 April 2012, the 100th anniversary of Titanic's maiden voyage will be celebrated by re-releasing the 1997 feature film Titanic in 3D.[164] ITV1 have produced a four-part Titanic mini-series to be broadcast in early 2012. The mini-series is written by Oscar-winner Julian Fellowes.[165]
The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra will perform The Titanic Requiem, a classical album written by singer/songwriter Robin Gibb and his son RJ Gibb, on April 10'th in London. [166]
The cruise ship Balmoral, operated by Fred Olsen Cruise Lines has been chartered by Miles Morgan Travel to follow the original route of Titanic, intending to stop over the point on the sea bed where she rests on 15 April 2012.[167]
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The table below shows the survivors and victims for passengers and crew onboard the RMS Titanic. Passengers are subdivided into men, women and children for each class while crew is divided into men and women. The table is sortable so that each column can be shown in alphabetically (or numerically) order growing of falling.
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